March 30, 2023
Executive Summary
As the influence of popular music permeates various facets of everyday existence, it becomes crucial to examine its consequences and potential adverse effects on Western society. In this research report, the author analyzes the impact at which popular music promotes misogynous and toxic masculine ideology through several components of the popular music industry. The components studied include lyrical content, music video content, musical artists’ personas, and the general attitudes existing in popular music genres. This research report found sufficient evidence to suggest that using misogynistic and violent lyrics in popular music promotes misogynistic ideology in popular culture in Western society. Furthermore, the author determines that misogynous and violent lyrics act as priming stimuli that evoke aggressive behaviour in men, specifically towards women. However, research also indicates that in recent years, artists have emerged, challenging the hegemonic ideology of masculinity. The sources used to inform this research are primarily found through the NAIT Library.
Introduction
Music is a prominent socio-cultural phenomenon appreciated worldwide as a prevalent form of fine art and communication. Music percolates into all areas of our lives, from live concerts to movie scores, to the backing track of our weekly grocery store visits; it is virtually everywhere in Western society. Hyatt et al. acknowledge that research suggests the average adult in Western society will listen to approximately 16 hours of music weekly (2017). Therefore, popular music is a significant component of Americans' media intake (LaMarre et al., 2012). Further, as personal narratives and universal truths are explored through sound and lyrics, popular music genres stand as heavy influences in promoting particular societal ideologies (Jang & Lee, 2014).
Sexuality, gender identity, race, and politics have become prominent topics in popular music throughout recent years; therefore, lyrical commentary on these subjects and music's impact on widespread opinion must not be ignored. Additionally, examining possible harmful ideologies or undertones promoted through popular music genres in Western society is essential. The release of the controversial song Blurred Lines, which contains sexually predatorial themes, has prompted discussion of music's impact in reinforcing gender stereotypes (Fosbraey & Puckey, 2021), the objectification of women, the fostering of misogynistic ideology, and ultimately endorsing a culture of toxic masculinity. However, it is also worth investigating the cultural shift of the re-defining of masculinity in the popular music industry in recent years.
Definitions
Misogyny
Misogyny is a term often used and conflated with sexism. However, misogyny’s etymology further explains its meaning; it combines the Greek words misein (to hate) and gynē (woman) (Fosbraey & Puckey, 2021). Misogyny specifically refers to hatred against women, including all who identify as female or transgender men and non-binary people who are misgendered as female that fall victim to misogynistic behaviour. Misogyny is described as resulting in “physical, emotional, and symbolic violence” against women, whereas sexism describes discrimination against any gender (Fosbraey & Puckey, 2021). Misogyny is exhibited in popular music through the normalization of the objectification of women and the use of demeaning and violent language in regard to women through lyrical and video content.
Toxic Masculinity
Toxic masculinity as a concept describes the normalization and justification of certain harmful masculine traits and behaviours, such as aggression, hypersexuality, violence, and suppression of emotional vulnerability (O’Malley, 2016; Malonda-Vidal et al., 2021). A popular misconception of toxic masculinity is that the term suggests that masculinity is inherently negative; however, the term states that it is certain patriarchal gender constructs of masculinity that are problematic, rather than men or masculinity itself. Toxic masculinity is exhibited in movements such as “Involuntary Celibate” or “Incel,” where misogyny and toxic masculine belief are the foundational core. The Incel movement is a reactionary social movement that has gained traction and attention for its explicit hatred for women, promotion of male supremacy, and its link to several domestic terrorist attacks (Conley, 2020). Further, misogyny and toxic masculinity exist symbiotically; one cannot be without the other. In terms of toxic masculinity’s presence in popular culture, popular music is complicit in both reinforcing and challenging these beliefs of masculinity.
For the Record, Music Matters: How Music Impacts Society at Large
As previously noted in this research report, popular music is consumed extensively in Western society as a primary media source. Thus, to understand the impacts of music with misogynistic themes on widespread culture, it is essential first to observe the extent to which popular music affects general attitudes and cultural beliefs. An example of the intersection of social politics and music is displayed in apartheid South Africa (1949-1992). Rural music was popularized and used to promote political propaganda and enforce government policies, while urban music was strictly prohibited at the time (Street, 2003). As acknowledged by the South African government’s implementation of its musical propaganda, music is observed and used as a prevalent tool in promoting political and social beliefs.
The intersection of music with widespread opinion is also illustrated within the use of musical anthems for political and social movements. Throughout recorded history, many musical artists have become the faces of political movements as their songs gained traction as facilitators empowering these motions. With the release of hit songs such as Helen Reddy’s I am Woman, and Aretha Franklin’s Respect, these songs became iconic anthems in the wake of the women’s liberation movement in the early 1970s (Parys, n.d.). This movement was primarily led in the Western world, eventually leading to significant global political, social, and economic change for women (Napikoski, 2020). In brief, it is needless to say that, socially and politically, music matters.
Lyrical Misogyny: A Trebled Phenomenon
Evidence suggests that music has many positive effects on human beings, such as inducing feelings of serene relaxation, and improving mood (Hyatt et al., 2017), and can even promote prosocial behaviour amongst individuals (Greitemeyer, 2009). However, negative effects are also recorded. As rap music was adopted into mainstream popular culture, following its rise to popularity, studies discovered that rap songs that contain misogynistic lyrics can act as a priming stimulus that evokes aggressive behaviour in males towards women.
This is revealed in a study released by Barongan & Nagayama, as male participants were exposed to either rap music with misogynous lyrics or rap music with neutral lyrics (1995). Participants were then instructed to either show a neutral, assaultive, or a sexual-violent vignette to a female confederate. Results revealed that 30% of the male participants who were exposed to the rap music with misogynistic lyrics showed the female confederate the assaultive vignette, as 70% showed the female confederate the neutral vignette. However, from the pool of participants who were exposed to the neutral rap music, only 7% showed the assaultive or sexual-violent vignette to the female confederate, while 93% of these participants showed the female confederate the neutral vignette. These results suggest that the misogynistic lyrics were responsible for heightening aggressive behaviour in men towards women.
A study released in 2011 suggests similar results, however the effects of violent lyrics in heavy metal music were evaluated instead (Mast & McAndrew). Male college students were exposed to either heavy metal music with violent lyrics, heavy metal music without violent lyrics, or no music at all. Participants were then directed to administer as much hot sauce as they desired to a cup of water under the pretense that another individual would have to drink it. Results indicated that those who were exposed to heavy metal music with violent lyrics were significantly more likely to add more hot sauce to the water than those in the other two groups. In conclusion, it is proven that violent lyrics, as well as misogynistic lyrics, act as priming stimuli that evoke aggression, and in the case of misogynistic lyrics, female-directed aggression in men. Despite rap music and heavy metal music being the subjects of study in these cases, every genre of popular music is noted to contain misogynistic themes (Fosbraey & Puckey, 2021). As popular music is a frequently consumed media, it is important to consider the pronounced effects that these kinds of lyrics could have if consumed on a more concentrated level, especially on a wider scale such as Western society.
Eminem & Justin Timberlake: It's Time to Face the Music
The dominance of cis-gendered, heterosexual men and misogyny in popular music is well-established (Fosbraey & Puckey, 2021). Popular music has adapted misogyny by overtly and covertly praising, endorsing, justifying, or normalizing the objectifying, exploitation, or victimization of women (Weitzer & Kubrin, 2009). One of many popular music genres notorious for its prominence of misogynistic themes and toxic masculinity is rap. Popular rap artists, including Eminem, Kanye West, and Odd Future, are infamous for their use of violent and misogynistic lyrics. Despite the controversy, Eminem remains successful and renowned for his celebrity discography, including albums The Marshall Mathers LP and The Eminem Show, which are recognized as the fastest-selling hip-hop albums of all time (Weitzer & Kubrin, 2009).
Regardless of these albums’ popularity, they are branded as incredibly controversial and problematic (Meslow, 2015), and are chocked-full of overtly violent and misogynistic lyrics. Moreover, it was found that 9 out of 14 songs on Eminem’s The Marshall Mathers LP describe murdering women in an intense graphic fashion (Weitzer & Kubrin, 2009). In addition to this, in 2001, Armstrong evaluated Eminem’s lyrical content in comparison to the rap subgenre of “gangsta rap”, which primarily references street and gang violence (Armstrong, 2001). Regarding misogynistic and violent lyrics, gangsta rap scored 22 percent, whereas Eminem’s lyrics scored 78 percent. Worse yet, in terms of lyrics depicting women’s murder, gangsta rap scored 31 percent, while Eminem scored 82 percent (Armstrong, 2001). Further, Fischer & Greitemeyer remark that the popularity of these albums by Eminem is accredited to misogynous music being a “widespread, frequently consumed, and successful phenomenon in the music business” (2006). Nevertheless, due to the mass success of the formerly mentioned albums, musical artists proceeding Eminem could be influenced and encouraged to release similarly harmful misogynistic content.
However, as overt misogyny is present and celebrated in genres such as rap music, pop music is also complicit in fostering a culture of misogyny. Pop music artist Justin Timberlake is also guilty in this practice. Timberlake made his heart throb debut in 1995 as a member of the popular boyband NSYNC. Following the band’s split in 2002, Timberlake followed his own path, cultivating a solo artist career and going on to gain his own illustrious fame (Fosbraey & Puckey, 2021). However, trying to break away from his wholesome boyband image, Timberlake began to challenge his previously established boyish ideals of love and romance, which eventually molded into thinly veiled expressions of misogyny and toxic masculinity (Fosbraey & Puckey, 2021). As Timberlake began his solo career, his fanbase was primarily young, impressionable females. This platform, along with its influence, allowed Timberlake to promote a harmful description of the ideal woman and relationship. Timberlake describes the ideal girl; as innocent, soft, feminine, but also sexually aggressive in nature—a characteristic that is traditionally viewed as masculine (Lambert, 2018). This depiction of the ideal woman is a direct contradiction to itself, and in turn, communicates to his audience that they should adhere to these unrealistic standards set by the male perspective (Fosbraey & Puckey, 2021).
Further recounts of misogynistic themes seen in Timberlake’s music as well as his celebrity persona are following his highly publicized split from pop star Britney Spears. Following the couple’s breakup, Timberlake took to several spiteful interviews airing out the intimate details of his relationship with Spears. This ultimately damaged Spears’ wholesome pop star reputation, as she would go on to face immense public backlash for her failure to remain abstinent until marriage (Fosbraey & Puckey, 2021). Whereas Timberlake was celebrated as he positioned himself as the scorned victim, lavishing in the acolytes that this event would bring to his career.
Following this, Timberlake released Cry Me a River and What Goes Around… Comes Around, songs believed to be recounts of his failed relationship with Spears while alluding to her infidelity. The music video of What Goes Around… Comes Around (Bayer, 2006) follows the story of an unrequited love affair between Timberlake and his love interest, played by Scarlett Johansson. Despite Johansson’s character’s protests to having a relationship with Timberlake in the music video, he is made out to be the blindsided victim when he eventually finds her being disloyal to him. The overarching narrative of these songs and many more in Timberlake’s discography is that he is the innocent victim as he positions his love interests as deceitful antiheroes (Fosbraey & Puckey, 2021). This narrative implies to his predominantly young female fanbase that they are inherently wrongdoers in interpersonal relationships. Further, that his female audience should expect to be treated as commodities in interpersonal relationships, pushed aside if they do not adhere to a specific quota of ideal requirements (Fosbraey & Puckey, 2021).
Is Masculinity in Popular Music Evolving? We'll have to Play it by Ear
Popular music is often a response to what is happening beyond the music, often acting as a mirror to reflect the culture and time it was created. Therefore, as music evolves with the times, so does its lyrical discourse. In recent years there has been a rise in the presence of queer, cis-gendered male, and gender-fluid artists in the popular music industry that contribute to challenging the traditional ideals of masculinity (Fosbraey & Puckey, 2021).
Frank Ocean is a queer, black hip-hop artist diverging from the hegemonic masculinity of the hip-hop music genre. Not only does Ocean’s open bisexuality differentiate him from his male counterparts in a predominantly heteronormative music genre, but so do his raw displays of vulnerability in his songwriting (Daly, 2019). Ocean is constantly questioning and redefining what characterizes manhood. He experiments with fluid and sometimes contradicting representations of masculinity through his style, lyricism, and personas (Daly, 2019). Through this, Ocean establishes that masculinity is not a term confined to heterosexual, cis-gendered men who suppress emotional vulnerability.
Further, rap artist Jay-Z has followed a similar transformative trajectory in recent years. Jay-Z began his rap career as a “gangsta rap” artist, a genre that fosters misogynistic and toxic masculine culture. However, the release of his album 4:44 suggests that Jay-Z’s preconceived notions of masculinity have undergone a drastic shift. Throughout 4:44, Jay-Z humbly admits to his shortcomings, admitting to lying and cheating and taking full accountability for his actions (Faber, 2017). Toxic masculinity in rap music often prevents men from admitting to their wrongdoings, as their masculine identity is deeply rooted in the idea that men do not show emotion or vulnerability. However, that is exactly what Jay-Z does throughout the entirety of this album. Further, Jay-Z addresses his audience as he expresses that the inability to be vulnerable results in the inability to feel and connect with others (Faber, 2017).
Jay-Z is an influential voice in the hip-hop and rap industry and continues to re-imagine new avenues that the genres can go. Jay-Z, Frank Ocean, and many more artists are already re-negotiating the terms of masculinity in popular music, thus contributing to a progressive shift in abolishing traditional masculine ideals.
Conclusion
As popular music has a significant influence on social beliefs and attitudes in Western society, the promotion of misogynous and toxic masculine lyrical content in today’s popular music only contributes to the normalization of gendered roles and stereotypes. Since it is proven that music with violent and misogynistic lyrics increases aggression responses in men, especially towards women, the effect of this is likely to be more pronounced with the rate at which this music is consumed. As a consequence, the presence and popularity of music with these themes in Western society must be critically re-examined. Eminem’s lyrical discourse overtly reinforces misogynistic ideology, whereas Justin Timberlake’s lyrical content is more discreet in its misogynistic undertones. Despite this, both facets are complicit in reinforcing toxic masculine ideals and reinstating harmful gender tropes.
Beyond its effects on women, misogyny and toxic masculinity in music also reinforce unrealistic and harmful ideals of masculinity by skewing males’ beliefs of what appropriate male behaviour and identity look like. As artists such as Frank Ocean and Jay-Z are attempting to redefine masculinity and push back against misogyny, we can only hope that the conversation extends beyond the lyrics. Moreover, it is important to self-reflect upon our own internalized ideas of masculinity and misogyny, as popular culture is merely a reflection of the society it exists within.
References
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